He aha e tauhohe angamaheni mō waiwaro tahi

Ia piha o pūhui matū taea whakaatu āhuatanga e tika ana ki to ratou hanganga hiko. Hoki ngā hopi tauhohenga whakauru angamaheni, wāhinga ranei hāora rāpoi. tukanga matū katoa i to ratou ake rere ngā, e ka kia atu kōrero.

He aha te waiwaro tahi

Tenei pūhui pūwaro kukū, e kua mohiotia rite parawini. Enei rāpoi ngota ngā o waro me te hauwai anake ngota, he mekameka acyclic rārangi branched ranei i roto i nei i reira te mea anake he pūhui kotahi. Homai nga āhuatanga o te piha haapiiraa, e taea e koe te tātai aha te āhuatanga tauhohe o waiwaro. rongo ratou i te tātai mō te piha haapiiraa katoa: H _{2n + 2} C _n.

hanganga matū

Parawini rāpoi ngota Kei roto ngā ngota waro whakaahua sp ³ hybridization. E ratou katoa orbitals honohono, e wha te āhua taua, pūngao me te aronga i roto i te wāhi. Te rahi o te koki i waenganui i nga taumata pūngao o 109 ° me te 28 '.

Ko te aroaro o kotahi here i roto i te rāpoi ngota whakatau he aha e āhuatanga o waiwaro tauhohe. Kei roto ratou σ-pūhui. Communication i waenganui i ngā waro he nonpolar me ngonge polarizable, he reira paku roa ake i C-H. Ano hoki, Ko te electronegative tino te kiato irahiko o te neke ki te ngota waro. āhuatanga te pūhui hua e C-H wehenga tawhiti iti.

tauhohenga whakauru

paraffins matū piha haapiiraa i te mahi matū iti. Ka taea te faataa tenei i te kaha o here i waenganui i C-C me C-H, i te mea uaua ki te whati i te mea o te wehenga tawhiti-kore. Ko te pūtake o to ratou whakangaromanga he tikanga homolytic, ai te momo tuwhena free wāhi. Ko te aha e āhuatanga waiwaro tahi e te tauhohenga whakauru. E taea e ki te taunekeneke ki te rāpoi ngota wai katote ranei o nga kawe tiaki taua matū.

hopohopo ratou free whakauru tuwhena i roto i nei e whakakapi te ngota hauwai e huānga kōnakonako atu rōpū kaha ranei. Ēnei tauhohe ngā tukanga e pā ana ki te kōnakonakotanga, sulfochlorination me nitration. Enei arahi ki te faaineineraa o pärönaki waiwaro tahi. tauhohenga whakauru e whāriki ana mā te tikanga tuwhena free ko te momo matua o e toru ngā wāhanga:

1. haamata Tukanga ki te tomokanga nucleation mekameka ranei, i roto i nei Radicals free e hanga e. Ko te kaiwhakakökï he puna o te marama katinga me whakawera.
2. Na ka whakawhanake mekameka i roto i i kawea ngā matūriki kaha taunekeneke ki rāpoi tautauā. Ko to ratou faafariuraa ki rāpoi me Radicals, aua.
3. ka whati te taahiraa whakamutunga te mekameka. tauhononotanga He ngaro o te matūriki kaha ranei. Ko te kupu poroa te whanaketanga o te tauhohenga mekameka.

Ko te tukanga o te te kōnakonakotanga

Kei te hāngai te reira i runga i te huarahi o te momo tuwhena. Waiwaro tahi kōnakonakotanga tauhohenga e wahi i irradiation ki te marama hihi katinga me te whakawera o te ranunga o kōnakonako me ngā waiwaro.

E ngohengohe ana ki te ture i kī Markovnikov ngā wāhanga katoa o te tukanga. E kīia ana, e whakamamaetia whakauru i kōnakonako, rawa hauwai, e no ki te waro hydrogenated. Kōnakonakotanga e wahi i roto i te raupapa e whai ake nei: i te tuatahi ki te ngota waro tuatoru.

e te tukanga tuu pai i roto i ngā rāpoi ngota waiwaro tahi ki te roa o te mekameka pūwaro matua. Ko e tika ana ki te heke o te ionizing pūngao i roto i tenei aronga, te taonga māmā irahiko piri tenei.

He tauira ko te chlorination o ngā rāpoi ngota mewaro. Ko te mahi o te radiation hihi katinga ai te momo tuwhena wāwāhi māota e kawe i roto i te whawhai i runga i te waiwaro tahi. puta wehenga me te hanganga o te ngota hauwai H ₃ C · te methyl ranei tuwhena. he korakora taua, i roto i te tahuri, te patu i te māota rāpoi, ārahi ki te whakangaromanga o tona hanganga, me te hanganga o te matū hou.

I ia wāhanga kawea te tukanga whakauru i roto i tetahi anake ngota hauwai. Ko te tauhohenga te kōnakonakotanga o waiwaro arata'i ki te hanganga āta o hlormetanovoy, dichloromethane, me trihlormetanovoy tetrahlormetanovoy rāpoi ngota.

Schematically, te tukanga ko e whai ake:

H ₄ C + Cl: Cl → H ₃ CCL + HCl,

H ₃ CCL + Cl: Cl → H ₂ CCL ₂ + HCl,

H ₂ CCL ₂ + Cl: Cl → HCCl ₃ + HCl,

HCCl ₃ + Cl: Cl → CCL ₄ + HCl.

I roto i te rerekē ki te chlorination o rāpoi mewaro mau ana i te tukanga taua ki ētahi atu waiwaro tahi āhuatanga whiwhi kore he matū he hauwai whakauru kotahi ngota waro, a i roto i te torutoru. Ratou ōwehenga ine e pā ana ki ngā tohu pāmahana. I roto i ngā āhuatanga matao, he hekenga i roto i te tere o te hanganga o pärönaki ki hanganga tuatoru, tuarua, me te tuatahi.

Ki te whakanui ake i te tere ūnga pāmahana o te hanganga o taua pūhui mara te te. I roto i te tukanga kōnakonakotanga reira ko te mana o te take pateko i tohu te tūponotanga rerekē o tukinga o te tuwhena ki te ngota waro.

e kore e tukanga kōnakonakotanga ki iodine puta i raro i ngā āhuatanga noa. He mea tika ki te hanga tikanga motuhake. A, no te kitea ki te mewaro puta hei whakarite i kōnakonako konutawa takanga hauwai. He he pānga i runga i methyl konutawa rite ki te hua tu i roto i matū hohe tuatahi te mewaro me te konutawa. whakaaro he tauhohenga taua te ki kia reversible.

Wurtz tauhohenga o waiwaro

Ko te tikanga mō te whiwhi ngā waiwaro ki te hanganga hangarite kukū. Ka rite ki e whakamahia te matū hohe konutai whakarewa, bromides alkyl ranei te pūhau alkyl. Ki te ratou taunekeneke rite konutai kōnakonako me nui haere mekameka pūwaro i ko te moni o nga Radicals waiwaro rua. Schematically, te kōtuitui ko e whai ake: R-Cl + Cl-R + 2Na → R-R + 2NaCl.

Ko taea anake Wurtz tauhohenga o waiwaro ki te he te kōnakonako i roto i to ratou rāpoi ngota i te ngota waro tuatahi. Hei tauira, CH ₃ -CH ₂ -CH ₂ Br.

Ki te i roto i tākaro o ranunga galogenuglevodorododnaya o rua pūhui, i roto i te tōhau o mekameka rerekē e toru i hanga hua. He tauira o tēnei tauhohenga e taea te mahi rite konutai waiwaro tahi pāhekoheko ki chloromethanes me hloretanom. Ko te putanga ko te ranunga ngā pūwaro, pōwaro me te ewaro.

Haunga te konutai, ki taea te whakamahi i ētahi atu konganuku alkali, e ngā lithium pāhare pāporo ranei.

tukanga sulfochlorination

Kei te karanga a hoki te reira i te tauhohenga Reed. Rere te reira i runga i te parau tumu o te whakakapinga free. He angamaheni o waiwaro ki te mahi o te ranunga o te pūngāwhā hāora rua, me te māota rāpoi i roto i te aroaro o te radiation hihi katinga tenei momo o te tauhohenga.

haamata te tukanga ki te tomokanga o te huarahi mekameka, i whiwhi ai ai te māota i te Radicals rua. Ko tētahi waiwaro tahi whakaeke e homai ara ki te matūriki alkyl me ngā rāpoi ngota o te hauwai pūhaumāota. Na roto i te waiwaro piri tuwhena ki te hanga i te pūngāwhā hāora rua matūriki matatini. Ki te ū hopu puta kotahi ngota māota i tetahi atu rāpoi ngota. Ko te rauemi whakamutunga ko te pūhaumāota sulfonyl waiwaro tahi, e whakamahia ai i roto i te kōtuitui o pūhui mata-itoito.

Schematically, rite tenei titiro te tukanga:

CLCL → ^Hv ∙ Cl + ∙ Cl,

HR + ∙ Cl → R ∙ + HCl,

R ∙ + Oso → ∙ RSO _2,

∙ RSO ₂ + ClCl → RSO ₂ Cl + ∙ Cl.

Ko te tukanga e pā ana ki nitration

tauhohe waiwaro tahi ki te waikawa hauota i roto i te otinga 10%, me te ki te ōkai tetravalent hauota i roto i te āhua haurehu waihā. Here o tona tupu ko uara tiketike o te pāmahana (e pā ana ki 140 ° C) me ngā uara pēhanga iti. I te putanga hua nitroalkanes.

Ko te tukanga o te utu-tuwhena momo ingoa i muri i te pūtaiao Konovalov, whakatuwheratia nitration kōtuitanga: CH ₄ + HNO ₃ → CH ₃ KORE ₂ + H ₂ O.

Ko te tikanga o te wāhinga

Hoki angamaheni dehydrogenation waiwaro tahi, me te papatanga. Mewaro rāpoi ngota te whakamamaetia he whāwehe waiariki oti.

Ko te tikanga taketake o nga tauhohe i runga ko te wāhinga o ngā ngota i waiwaro.

tukanga dehydrogenation

A, no te wehe i te ngota hauwai i runga i te kōhiwi waro o paraffins, anake mewaro e whiwhi pūhui hamanga. tauhohe matū pērā o waiwaro whakamatauria i tiketike pāmahana (400 ki te 600 ° C) me te i raro i te accelerators mahi rite konukawata, nika, waikura chromium me te konumohe.

Ki te whai wāhi i roto i te tauhohe o te ewaro pōwaro ranei rāpoi, na ka ewaro ona hua pōwaro ki tetahi here rua ranei.

Ko te dehydrogenation o te koiwi wha, e rima-waro whiwhi diene pūhui. Mai i hanga e butadiene pūwaro-1,3 me 1,2-butadiene.

Ki te reira i roto i te matū tauhohe ki 6 atu ranei ngā ngota waro, i hanga te benzene te. He he mowhiti kakara ki toru here rua.

Ko te tukanga e pā ana ki whāwehe

I raro i tiketike pāmahana e taea tauhohenga o waiwaro haere ki te here waro āputa me te hanganga o ngā momo kaha o te momo tuwhena. E kīia taua tukanga ki rite papatanga pyrolysis ranei.

Whakawera i te matū hohe ki pāmahana rawa 500 ° C, hua i roto i te whāwehe o te rāpoi ngota i roto i nei e hanga e ranunga matatini o te alkyl-momo Radicals.

A amo ana i roto i raro i kaha whakawera o te pyrolysis o ngā waiwaro ki te roa mekameka waro tika ki te whiwhi pūhui kukū, me te hamanga. Kei te karanga a te reira waiariki papatanga. whakamahia ana tēnei tukanga te tae noa te rau tau pokapū o-20.

Ko te drawback ko ki te whiwhi ngā waiwaro ki te tau wāwaro iti (iti iho i te 65), na ka whakakapia reira hangai whakakōkī. e te tukanga wahi i pāmahana e te hunga i raro 440 ° C, me tenge o iti iho i te 15 atmospheres, i roto i te aroaro o te aluminosilicate waiwaro tuku whakatere he hanganga branched. He tauira ko te pyrolysis o te mewaro: 2CH ₄ → ^{t °} C ₂ H ₂ + 3H _2. Te hauwai acetylene me rāpoi i hanga i roto i te tauhohenga.

kia waiho i raro i te rāpoi ngota ki te faafariuraa mewaro. Ki tenei tauhohenga titau wai me te whakakōkī sēniti. Ko te putanga ko te ranunga o te haukino me te hauwai.

ngā tukanga piti hāora

Ko te tauhohe matū e he waiwaro tahi angamaheni e pā ana ki te pānga irahiko.

He he hāora-aunoa o paraffins. Ko tā te reira i te tikanga tuwhena noa o te piti hāora o waiwaro kukū. I roto i te tauhohe, whiwhi wāhanga wai hydroperoxide waiwaro tahi. I te tīmatanga tauhohe rāpoi ngota parawini ki te hāora i roto i te Radicals hohe tohaina. Next, pāhekoheko alkyl matūriki tetahi e rāpoi ngota _2, whiwhi ∙ Roo. Mai te peroxy tuwhena o te waikawa fatty whakapā te rāpoi ngota waiwaro tahi, a ka tukua hydroperoxide. He tauira ko te autooxidation o ewaro:

C ₂ H ₆ + e ₂ → ∙ C ₂ H ₅ + hoo ∙,

∙ C ₅ H ₂ + e ₂ → ∙ OOC ₂ H _5,

∙ OOC ₂ H ₅ + C ₂ H ₆ → HOOC ₂ H ₅ + ∙ C ₂ H _5.

Hoki waiwaro tahi āhuatanga e te tauhohe o te ngingiha e he te nuinga āhuatanga matū, i roto i te whakarite i te hanganga o te wahie. He oxidative i roto i te āhua ratou ki te tukunga o te wera: 2c ₂ H ₆ + 7O ₂ → 4CO ₂ + 6H ₂ O.

Ki te kitea te tukanga i roto i te nui iti o te hāora, ka taea e te hua mutunga hei te divalent waro waro ranei haukura, whakaritea nei e te kukū o te e _2.

I roto i te piti hāora o ngā waiwaro i raro i te mana o ngā matū catalytic me wera ki te 200 ° C e whiwhi waipiro rāpoi ngota, hāparo-tahi waikawa ranei.

TAUIRA ewaro:

C ₂ H ₆ + e ₂ → C ₂ H ₅ OH (waihā),

C ₂ H ₆ + e ₂ → CH ₃ cho + H ₂ E (hāparo-me te wai)

2c ₂ H ₆ + 3Tukua ₂ → 2CHRON ₃ COOH + 2H ₂ E (waikawa me te wai ewaro).

Ka taea te oxidized waiwaro tahi i raro i te mahi o peroxides huringa trinomial. Ko ētahi o ēnei dimethyl dioxirane. Ko te hua ko te hāora o paraffins waipiro rāpoi ngota.

e kore e Māngai paraffins whakautu ki KMnO ₄ ranei pāhare, me te wai pūkeha.

isomerization

I waiwaro tahi āhuatanga momo whakauru tauhohenga ki te huarahi electrophilic. tuku tenei te isomerization o te mekameka waro. Catalyzes tenei tukanga te pūhaumāota konumohe, tali nei ki te parawini kukū. He tauira ko te isomerization o te pūwaro rāpoi ngota, i te mea 2-methylpropane: C ₄ H ₁₀ → C ₃ H ₇ CH _3.

tukanga hā

matū kukū i roto i nei te mekameka waro matua kei roto e ono, neke atu rānei ngā ngota waro, e taea o whakahaere dehydrocyclization. e kore hoki nga rāpoi poto he āhuatanga o tēnei tauhohenga. Ko nga wa katoa te hua i te mowhiti e ono-membered rite te huriowaro me pärönaki ona.

I roto i te aroaro o accelerators tauhohenga, ka haere te dehydrogenation atu o te faafariuraa i roto i te mowhiti benzene atu eu. puta te reira i tahuri waiwaro acyclic ki kakara ao ranei. He tauira ko te dehydrocyclization o hexane:

H ₃ C-CH ₂ - CH ₂ - CH ₂ - CH ₂ -CH ₃ → C ₆ H ₁₂ (te huriowaro)

C ₆ H ₁₂ → PF ₆ H ₆ + 3H ₂ (benzene).