Faaotiraa o ngota me ngā rāpoi ngota. Whakamāramatanga o te ngota tae noa ki 1932

Tīmata i te wā tawhito ki te waenganui o te rau tau 18, te nuinga pūtaiao i te taha o te ariā e te ngota - he korakora o te mea e kore e taea te wehea. hoatu English pūtaiao me te taiao o, ko D. Dalton he whakamāramatanga o te ngota rite te wahi iti o te huānga matū. MV Lomonosov i roto i tona parau haapiiraa ngota, me te rāpoi i taea ki te hoatu i te whakamāramatanga o te ngota me te rāpoi ngota. I whakaae ia e te rāpoi ngota, i karangatia e ia "corpuscles", tito o "huānga" - ngota - a kei roto i te nekehanga tamau.

D. I. Mendeleev whakapono e tenei matū subunit e hanga ake te ao rauemi, te mau tonu tana āhuatanga katoa anake, ki te kahore nei hoki e ngawari ki te wehenga. I roto i tenei tuhinga, tautuhi tatou he ahanoa rite te microcosm o te ngota, ka ako ona āhuatanga.

Whakamārama o te ariā o te hanganga ngota

I roto i te rau tau 19, kei te mōhio whānuitia te reira rite te tauākī i runga i te indivisibility o te ngota. whakapono te nuinga o pūtaiao e kore e taea te puta nga matūriki o tetahi huānga matū i raro i tetahi huru ki ngota o ētahi atu āhuatanga. Enei whakaaro i te pūtake ki runga i hāngai te whakamāramatanga o te ngota tae noa ki 1932. I roto i te mutunga o te rau tau 19 i roto i te pūtaiao kua hanga āhuatanga taketake i ketia tenei tirohanga. Tuatahi o te katoa, i roto i 1897 kitea te ahupūngao Ingarangi J. J. Thomson i te irahiko. Kei te parau tenei meka ke whakaaro pūtaiao, e pā ana ki te wahi wehewehe o te huānga matū.

Me pēhea te ki te whakamatau e te hanganga matatini ngota

i mua ara te kitea o te irahiko , pūtaiao kotahi whakaae e te ngota i kahore tiaki. Na, ka kitea taua mea e ngāwari kitea irahiko i tetahi huānga matū e hiahiatia ana. Ka taea te kitea ratou i roto i te mura, he kawe o nāianei hiko ratou, tukua ratou matū i roto i x-ray radiation.

Otiia ki te he wahi o katoa kaore he aweretanga, me ngota tōraro i ako te irahiko, te kupu, i roto i tētahi ngota reira e te tahi mau matūriki e te hunga mohio ki te whai i te tiaki pai, te kore e kore e ngota e electrically kūpapa. No te tauturu i vete te hanganga o te ngota kua awhinatia he āhuatanga tinana rite ira. hoatu te reira i te whakamāramatanga tika o te ngota i te ahupūngao, me ka matū.

Ko te hihi e kitea

Ko French ahupūngao A. tēnei wā te tuatahi ki te whakaahua i te āhuatanga o te tukunga o ngā ngota o ētahi o ngā huānga matū, ngā hihi e kitea. ionize ratou te haere rangi i roto i te rauemi, meinga blackening o paraharaha whakaahua. I muri mai, te Curies ko Rutherford kitea e te whakaahua ke matū iraruke ki ngota o ētahi atu āhuatanga matū (pērā i konukarihi - konu).

he nonuniform i roto i te hanganga radiation iraruke: korakora ārepa, matūriki peta, hihi kama. Ko te kupu, ko te āhuatanga o te ira whakamatauria e te taka pūmotu o huānga matūriki i te hanganga matatini. Tenei meka meinga nga huringa i hanga ki te whakamāramatanga o te ngota. He aha matūriki Ko te ngota, i homai e Rutherford whiwhi meka pūtaiao hou? Ko te whakahoki ki tēnei pātai, ko te tauira mataotao karihi whakaarohia o te ngota, kia rite ki nei a tawhio noa te neke i te irahiko karihi pai-i ako.

tauira ketanga Rutherford

Ko te ariā o te kaiputaiao, ahakoa tona huru tino, i taea e kore tautika tautuhi i te ngota. Ko ona kitenga e poka ki te ture taketake o thermodynamics, rite ki nei ngaro katoa o te irahiko e amio ana i te karihi ratou pūngao me, rite kia reira, maoro, i ki te hinga ki runga ki a ia. Ngota i roto i tenei take ngaro. Ko tenei mau e kore te take, mai i te matū me matūriki e hanga e ratou i ai, te tīariari i roto i te āhua mō te wa roa. Inexplicably ngota e hāngai ana taua faaotiraa i runga i te ariā o Rutherford, rite pai rite te āhuatanga e puta ina haere matū ohie wera i roto i te ttara pae kupenga. I muri i tūāwhiorangi ngota i hanga i te wa ano i te āhua rārangi. taupatupatu ki te tauira a Rutherford o te ngota tenei, kia rite ki nei e whai i te tūāwhiorangi ki kia tonu. E ai ki nga ariā o rehe aronui, e kore e irahiko reira i roto i te karihi āhuatanga rite ngā ira me te ia i te ahua o te kapua irahiko.

whakaaro te nuinga o tona kiato i roto i te etahi i te wāhi o te wāhi huri noa i te karihi, ka ko ki hei te wāhi o te korakora i te wa i homai. Hoki, i kitea ai e te ngota, kua whakaritea irahiko i roto i ngā papa. Ka taea te whakaritea te maha o ngā papa e mohio ki te maha o te wā i roto i nei te huānga i roto i te Periodic D. I. Mendeleeva Pūnaha. Hei tauira, kei te ngota ūkuikui 15 irahiko me e toru ngā taumata pūngao. ka karanga te tohu, e whakatau i te maha o ngā taumata pūngao ko te tau aronui tino.

I whakapumautia te reira i experimentally e whai i te taumata pūngao o ngā irahiko, kei tata ki te matua, te pūngao i raro. Kei te wehea ia anga pūngao ki iti-taumata, a ratou, i roto i tahuri, i runga i nga orbitals. E kei i orbitals rerekē irahiko i nga kapua puka taua (s, p, d, f).

I runga i te i mua, whai reira e kore e taea e noho te āhua o te kapua irahiko. Kei te whakaritea tino te reira i rite ki te orbital tau aronui. tāpiri hoki tatou e te mea i whakaritea te āhua o te irahiko ki te korakora ano e uara e rua - autō, me te miro tau aronui. hāngai ana te tuatahi i runga i te whārite Schrodinger me faaite te takotoranga mokowā o te kapua irahiko i runga i te pūtake o te toru-dimensionality o to tatou ao. Ko te tohu tuarua - te maha o te whatu ki runga ki taua mea whakatau hurihanga o te irahiko huri noa tona tuaka counter-tākaraka ranei.

Ko te kitea o te iramoe

Na roto i te mahi o D. Chadwick, puritia ratou i roto i 1932, i hoatu ai i te tatararaa hou o te ngota i roto i te matū me te ahupūngao. I roto i to ratou ngā pūtaiao whakamatauria e ia e i roto i te wāhinga puta radiation polonium meinga e te matūriki te kore tiaki, te papatipu 1,008665. ingoa te matūriki timatanga hou i te iramoe. Tona tūhura me te ako o ona āhuatanga e whakaaetia te pūtaiao Soviet V. Gapon me Ivanenko te hanga i tētahi ariā hou o te hanganga o te karihi ngota, kei roto iraoho me ngā iramoe.

E ai ki te ariā hou, whakatau i te taonga i te ngota e whai ake te hanga i te kōwae hanganga o te huānga matū, arā, o te matua kei roto iraoho, ngā iramoe me ngā irahiko neke a tawhio reira. Ko rite ki te maha raupapa o te huānga matū i roto i te pūnaha wā tonu te maha o matūriki pai i roto i te karihi.

I muri Ahorangi Zhdanov i ona ngā whakapumautia e raro i te mana o te radiation rangi pakeke, kua wahia karihi ngota ki iraoho me ngā iramoe. I tua atu, kua reira kua whakamatauria e te ope pupuri enei matūriki timatanga i roto i te karihi, he reira tino pūngao-kaha. mahi ratou i runga i tawhiti poto rawa (o te tikanga o te 10 ^-23 cm), ka karanga karihi. Ka rite ki whakahuatia mua, e MV i taea ki te hoatu i te whakamāramatanga o te ngota me te rāpoi ngota i runga i te pūtake o meka pūtaiao mohiotia ki a ia Lomonosov.

I tēnei wā whakaaro mohio te tauira e whai ake nei: ngā ngota o te karihi me ngā irahiko neke a tawhio reira i roto i te ara tino tautuhi - orbitals. whakaatu irahiko i te wa ano nga āhuatanga o rua nga matūriki me ngaru, e ko, he āhua rua. hāngai te karihi o te ngota e tata katoa tona papatipu. Kei reira o ngā iraoho me ngā iramoe e pā ana ki ope karihi.

Ahakoa he reira taea ki te paunatia ngota

Huri i te reira i roto i taua ia ngota he papatipu. Hei tauira, ko reira o Hauwai 1,67h10 ^-24 i ara uaua ki te whakaaro pēhea te iti tenei uara. Hei kitea te taimaha o te ahanoa, e kore e whakamahi i nga pauna, me te oscillator, i te mea he nanotube waro. Ki te tātai i te taimaha o te ngota me te rāpoi ngota atu watea rahinga ko te taimaha whanaunga. E whakaatu ana te reira i te tini o nga wa te taimaha o te rāpoi ngota he ngota neke atu i 1/12 o te ngota waro, i te mea 1,66h10 ^-27 kg ranei. E ngā papatipu ngota i roto i te ripanga pūmotu o ngā āhuatanga matū, ka whai ratou kahore taha.

E pai te mōhio e te taimaha ngota o te pūmotu matū Scientists - ko te maha papatipu toharite o kanoirite. puta te reira i, i roto i te āhua o tetahi wae o te huānga matū kia whai papatipu rerekē. Ko te kupu nga utu o nga karihi o taua matūriki hanganga taua.

Kua kitea Scientists e rerekē te kanoirite i maha o ngā iramoe i te karihi, me te ki atu tenei ratou karihi ōrite. Hei tauira, he ngota māota, he puranga 35 roto 18 ngā iramoe, me 17 iraoho, a ki te papatipu o te 37 - 20 iraoho me 17 ngā iramoe. He maha ngā āhuatanga matū, he ranunga o kanoirite. Hei tauira, matū ohie pērā i pāhare pāporo, hauhauā, hāora i roto i roto i ona ngota hanganga e tohu 3 kanoirite rerekē.

Faaotiraa o te atomicity

He maha ngā tikanga. A feruri i te mea te tikanga o te tenei wā i roto i te matū. Ki te i te iti rawa ha mōmeniti taea te tīariari te ngota o te pūmotu matū i roto i te noho wehe, e kore e ahu ki te hanga i matūriki matatini atu - rāpoi ngota, ka mea tatou e penei matū i te hanganga ngota. Hei tauira, maha-wāhanga chlorination tauhohenga o te mewaro. Kei te whānui whakamahia te reira i roto i te matū waihanga organic mo nga pärönaki kōnakonako nui: dichloromethane, waro tetrachloride. Kei te wahia te reira i rāpoi māota ki ngota he tauhohenga tiketike. whakangaromia ratou here sigma i roto i te rāpoi ngota mewaro, te whakarato i te tauhohenga mekameka whakauru.

Ko tētahi atu tauira o te tukanga matū he faufaa nui i roto i te ahumahi - te whakamahi o te hauwai rite te kaihoko waipatu me te bleaching. Whakatau i o hāora ngota rite te hua wāhinga o te hauwai puta i roto i rua i te pūtau ora (i te paru catalase), me i roto i te taiwhanga. hāora Atomic qualitatively whakaritea e ona āhuatanga antioxidant tiketike, me to ratou kaha ki te whakangaro āpiha pathogenic: Bacteria, harore me o ratou pua.

Kia pehea te te kōpaki karihi

Kua kitea i mua e matou e te wae hanganga o te huānga matū he hanganga matatini. Huri noa i te matūriki karihi pai-i ako revolve irahiko kino. Ko te Nobel Niels Bohr, e hāngai ana i runga i ariā aronui o te marama, i hanga te whakaako, ai e whai ake te kiripuaki me tāutu o ngota: irahiko neke huri noa te karihi anake i etahi huarahi i whakaritea i roto i tenei take e kore e anaana pūngao. Bohr, kua whakaaturia aivanaa e te matūriki o te microworld, e ngā ngota me ngā rāpoi ngota e kore e whakarongo ki te ture tika mo te tinana nui - ahanoa macrocosm.

Ko te hanganga o nga anga irahiko o particulates i ako kua i roto i te pepa i runga i pūtaiao ahupūngao aronui pērā i Hund, Pauli Klechkovskii. Mai i mohiotia tenei mea e te irahiko hanga kahore he huru te nekehanga takahuri huri noa te karihi, engari ki runga ki etahi ara whakaritea. kitea Pauli e i roto i te taumata pūngao kotahi i ia o ona orbitals s, p, d, f i roto i ngā pūtau hiko kia kaua e nui ake i te rua matūriki tōraro whakatupato o uara whatu ritenga + ½ me - ½.

faataa ture a Hund pehea ki te whakaki i orbitals irahiko ki te taumata pūngao taua.

Aufbau parau tumu ano, ka karanga te ture n + l, whakamārama pēhea te orbitals ki tonu multielectron ngota (ngā huānga 5, 6, 7 huringa). mahi katoa o te regularities runga ake rite te pūtake ariā o te huānga matū hanga e Dmitriem Mendeleevym.

tohu piti hāora

Ko te ariā taketake i roto i te matū me te whakaahua ana te āhua o te ngota i roto i te rāpoi ngota. Ko te whakamāramatanga hou o te tohu o hāora o te ngota ko e whai ake: makatuunga te tiaki kei te ngota i roto i te rāpoi ngota, i te tatau i runga i nga ariā e he rāpoi ngota kua anake te hanganga katote.

Ka taea te faaite i te piti hāora i te tau tōpū he tau hautanga, he pai, kino kore ranei uara ranei. I roto i te nuinga o ngā āhuatanga matū ngota i te maha o āhua piti hāora. Hei tauira, hauota ko -3, -2, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5. Ko te huānga taua, pērā i köwhai, i roto i te katoa o ona pūhui e kotahi anake āhua hāora rite ki te -1. Ki te tukua atu he taonga ohie, tona āhua piti hāora o te kore. Tenei rahinga matū watea ki te whakamahi mo te whakarōpū o matū me ki te whakaahua o ratou āhuatanga. I roto i te nuinga o te wā, te tohu hāora o te matū e whakamahia ana i roto i te whakatakoto ake tauhohe whārite, pitihāoratanga.

Ko te āhuatanga o ngota

Ngā mihi ki te āhuatanga o te ahupūngao aronui, te whakamāramatanga hou o te ngota, e hāngai ana nei i runga i te ariā Ivanenko ko Gapon E, i kō atu e nga meka pūtaiao e whai ake nei. E kore te te hanganga o te karihi ngota ke i roto i te tauhohe matū. pā te huringa anake nga orbitals irahiko pahoho. Ka taea te pēnei ratou hanganga ki te rota o ngā āhuatanga ōkiko me te matū o te matū. Ki te rau te irahiko he āmionga tū, me te puta ki orbital ki te teitei pūngao taua ngota i huaina ko fiefia.

Me kï reira e kore e taea e te irahiko e he roa te wa i runga i enei orbitals matua-kore. Hoki mai ki tona ohuraa pahoho, E faatae mai te irahiko te aronui o te pūngao. Ko te ako o taua āhuatanga o te wae hanganga o ngā āhuatanga matū rite irahiko hunaonga, electronegativity, ionization pūngao, kua whakaaetia pūtaiao e kore anake ki te tautuhi i te ngota rite te microcosm matūriki faufaa, engari tukua ano hoki ki a ratou te whakamārama i te kaha o te ngota ki te hanga i te āhua rāpoi kainga, me te itoito atu pai o te mea, he putanga taea o te hanga i tetahi momo o here matū pūmau: katote, kotuari-neke, me te apolar, kaituku-acceptor (rite momo kotuari hononga) me te m etallicheskoy. Ko te whakamutunga whakatau te āhuatanga tino nui tinana, me te matū o te konganuku.

I whakapumautia te reira i experimentally e taea te rahi o te ngota rerekē. ka whakawhirinaki katoa i runga i te rāpoi ngota i roto i nei ngā reira. Na roto i X-ray e taea tātari ttara tātai i te tawhiti i waenganui i ngā ngota i roto i te pūhui matū, me te ako pūtoro wae huānga hanganga. Whai tauira o te huringa o radii o te ngota roto i roto i te wā i te rōpū o ngā āhuatanga matū ranei, he reira taea ki te matapae o ratou āhuatanga ōkiko me te matū. Hei tauira, i roto i wā ki te whakanui ake karihi ngota ki atu tenei ratou hekenga radii ( "ngota kōpeketanga"), a reira i tuku i nga āhuatanga konganuku o nga pūhui, me rahi roa'tu, nonmetallic.

Ko te kupu, te matauranga o te hanganga o te ngota e taea tika te whakatau i te āhuatanga ōkiko me te matū o ngā pūmotu katoa ngā i roto i te pūnaha wā o ngā huānga.